Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics?什么是语言学 [A] The definition of linguistics Linguisticsis generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究) Process of linguistic study: ① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed； 观察现象后总结 ② Hypotheses are formulated; 提出假说 ③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations; 通过观察考证假说 ④ A linguistic theory is constructed. 构建出语言学理论 [B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics(1-6) : the study of language as a whole从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning （应用语言学：使用语言学理论进行语言教学和学习） Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ①Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 (现代语言研究写多为描写性) Two different types of linguistic study. Descriptive study aims to describe and analyze the language people use. Prescriptive study aims to laydown rules for correct and standard. ②Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性，特别是当代共时） The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ③Speech and writing 言语与文字 (Speech is prior to writing) 2 major media of linguistic communication. Spoken language is the natural or primary medium. Spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the revised record of speech. ④Langue and parole 语言和言语 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Saussure (sociological) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community （指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统） Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use （指语言在实际运用中的实现） ⑤Competence and performance语言能力与语言运用 Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological) Competence: the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language. （理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识-即最完美的语言规则） Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately. [grammatical and discourse competence, pragmatic competence, sociolinguistic and illocutionary competence] Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication. （这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现） Summary of ④⑤: Saussure took a sociological view. Langue is a matter of social conventions. Chomsky took a psychological view. Competence is a property of the mind of individuals. Traditional Grammar and Modern Linguistics. ① Linguistics is descriptive, traditional grammar is prescriptive. ②Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary. Traditional grammar emphasize the importance of written words. ③ Modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 1.2 What is language?什么是语言 [A] The definition of language = SHAV Language is a system of arbitraryvocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。) a) System: combined together according to rules（根据规则组合在一起） b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for （语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系） c) Vocal: the primary medium for all languagesis sound. （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音） d) Human: language is human-specific（语言是人类所独有的） [B]Design features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication（识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征） The following5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language. ①Arbitrariness（任意性） There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words are motivated.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意。一些词是意识激发而生。） a) Echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words（拟声词） b) Some compound words（某些复合词） The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. ②Productivity（能产性，创造性） Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) ★③Duality (of Structure)（双重结构性/两重性/二元性） = Double Articulation (of Language)语言双重陈述 Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is units of meaning, e.g. a morpheme or a word.（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）The units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. ④Displacement（跨时空性，移位性） Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places). ⑤Cultural transition（文化传递性） While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt. Chapter 2 Phonology音位学/ 音韵学 The range of sounds that are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language(其实质是一个范围); and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds. [A] The definition of phonetics（语音学） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有音） Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学） Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（声学语音学） 研究声音在空气中以声波存在时的物理特征 Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.（听觉语音学）Phonetic similarity not, phonetic identity is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages. (语言音位分析标准是语音的相似性，而非语音语征) [B] Organs of speech（发音器官） 发声器官，特别是舌头，干预（modify）气流运动，第一个干预气流的器官是声门（Glottis） 3 important areas/ cavities formed the vocal tract（声道） 口腔 (1-9) The oral cavity– the mouth 11The pharyngeal cavity– the throat 咽腔 (Glottis + 10) 鼻腔 12 The nasal cavity– the nose Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10 附加：mandible 下颌 larynx(喉): 气从肺出，经气管，入喉，过Glottis声门 Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cordsare spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced(Voicing): 浊音when the vocal cords aredrawn together/ close, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. (声带靠近合住，气流通过不断推开声带，形成震动) All the English vowelsare typically voiced (voicing) 补充：如果vocal cords是完全紧闭，那么发出glottal stop Not Nasalized未鼻音化when velum is drawn back/lowered to close the passage so air can only go through mouth. Nasalized: 鼻音化the passage is left open to allow air exist through the nose Twang鼻声 velum is partially open, resulting in speech with a nasal coloring. [C] Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions （语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音） IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标) Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only（代表字母的符号） Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics（变音符） E.g.: P17 在元音前 [l][li:f]-- a clear [l] (no diacritic) 在词尾or辅音前 [l][bild]--a dark [l] [~] [l][helθ]--a dental [l] [ |—| ] 表示送气送气音 [p][pit]--an aspirated [phit] [ph] 不送气 [p][spit]--an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic) [n][btn]a syllabic nasal [n] () [D] Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类） In terms of manner of articulation根据发音方法分(the manner in which obstruction is created) ①Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly [p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g] ②Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month [f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] ③Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives[t∫]/[dз] Liquid + glides approximants（无擦通音）[r] [l] [w] [j] ④Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]a lateral sound(专门与其他的approximant分开) [r]retroflex(从发音部位看)翘舌音 ⑤Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels半元音) ⑥Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], [n], [η] By place of articulation根据发音部位分(the place where obstruction is created) ①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions[p]/[b], [w](velar) ②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth[f]/[v] ③dental齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth[θ]/[δ] ④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r] ⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate[θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз],[j] ⑥velars软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum[k], [g], [η] ⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx[h] [E] Classification of English vowels（英语元音的分类） In producing a vowel, the air stream is met with no obstruction whatsoever. ① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; ② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; ③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips): All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [] All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels ④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels Larynx (tense) or (lax) Monophthongs, diphthongs Cardinal vowels [F] The definition of phonology（音位学） Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.音位学研究音位系统，发现语言中音组合的模式，以及这些音是怎么在语言交流中传达意义的。 [G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） 不同的音位不一定会区别单词的意思，比如[ph]和[p]不会区分，但是[s]和[t]会区分 Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） /p/是英语系统中一个音位，在不同情况下会发成送气或者不送气。 Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体） 总结：音位学研究音位，音位底下有不同音位变体，每隔音位变体都是个音素。 [H] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体） gill, bill, till, will: /g/ and /b/ are in phonemic contrast, so are /b/ and /t/, /t/ and /w/. 音位对立 Gill and bill are a minimal pair, gill, bill, till, will together form a s minimal set. Allophones of the same phonemes are in complementary distribution. Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they‘re in phonemic contrast. E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/（要会判断！） Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be incomplementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning. Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal set.（元音和辅音都可以） [I] Some rules in phonology ①sequential rules序列规则 Phonotactics of 3consonants occurring in onset:如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则： No1: ___/s/ 第一个音位一定是/s/ ___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二个音位一定是/p/, /t/, /k/ ___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三个音位一定是/r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ No2: The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ] are not to be followed by another sibilants. ② assimilation rules同化规则 Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation. Assimilation & elision effects都属于co-articulation effects Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g. 1. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.鼻音化现象 bean,beam中的 /i:/ 鼻音化 2. /n/在indiscreet 和 incorrect中一个是齿龈鼻音而在incorrect中则是软腭鼻音 ③deletion rule/Elision省略规则 Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音 所以音位标注sign时候，g应该仍然标示出来，虽然在IPA标注时候不会出现。 [J] Suprasegmental features（超音段特征） ①Stress重音 Word stress & sentence stress 1．名词前重，动词后重 import 2．The stress of the English compounds always on the first element（blackbird/ black bird） 3．所以注意区分dining room和swimming fish的区别 ②Tone声调 Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.像音素一样可以区别意义 Chinese is a tone language with four tones.汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调 Level, rise, fall-rise, fall阴平阳平上声去声 ③Intonation语调 When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones四种语调 The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone降调声调将声调升降调 前3最常用 Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit. 一般nucleus都是在一个intonation unit最后一个重音上。如：He doesn‘t want it. 重音在want上，如果改变nucleus到he就有新的意思产生，变成是他不要，但是可能我要。 Chapter 3 Morphology形态学 [A] The definition of morphology Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究） Morpheme:词素the most basic element of meaning.（意义的最基本要素） (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意义单位或者语法功能) [B] Free morphemes & bound morphemes（自由词素和黏着词素） Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] &Functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.] (It‘s not always possible to assign a lexical meaning to morphemes - Functional morphemes) (to is an infinitive marker- 不定式标记) Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form Derivational morphemes派生词素：Less productive. They add a minute r delicate grammatical function to the sten. Do not change the word class of the word they attach to. When they are conjoined to other morphemes, a new word is derived. affix词缀 (suffix, infix, prefix) + root后缀中缀前缀+词根 Inflectional morphemes曲折词素：Inflection morphemes for most part are grammatical markers 8 types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+ -‘s, -s [possessive所有格; plural复数] Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular第三人称单数; present participle现在分词; past tense过去式, past participle过去分词] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative比较级; superlative最高级] [C] Derivational vs. Inflectional派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志） Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示语法标志（时态、数、格） Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category词的范畴; Derivational morphemes are opposite Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional词根/词干+派生+曲折 [D] Morphological Rules形态学规则（词的构成方式词素是怎样组合成为词） 比如：N. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overgeneralization Some morphological rules can be used quite freely, therefore, are called productive morphological rules. Others are called less productive morphological rules. Still, a productive morphological rules can in the course of time become less productive (sincere- sincerity is right, fierce – fiercity is wrong. ) [E] Morphs and allomorphs语素和语素变体 Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme,a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. e.g. map----maps [s] dog----dogs [z] watch----watches [iz] mouse----mice [ai] ox----oxen [n] tooth----teeth sheep----sheep Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. [F] Word-formation process（构词法）[IN CHAPTER 7]①→⑦是胡书中词汇变化⑧属于语义变化 ⑨⑩属于word formation ①Coinagethe invention of totally new terms（创造全新的词） ②Borrowingthe taking over of words form other languages loanwords; loanblend, loanshift (bridge), and loan translation ③Acronyms new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words ④Blending taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word ⑤Clipping = Abbreviation a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form ⑥Back formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word ⑦ Analogical creation → 类比造词 work wrought (old) worked (new) ⑧Conversion/ Functional Shift category change, functional shift [ knee – to knee] ⑨Derivation the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words（添加词缀） ⑩Compounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single form（组成复合词） [F] Additional Terms补充概念 Open class words= content words (we regularly add words to these classes) Closed class words(new words are not usually added to these classes.) A compound noun, adjective, or verb is one that is made up of two or more words, for example \"fire engine,\" \"bottle-green,\" and \"firelight.\" 合成的 (词) The second/ final word usually determines the property/ category of the compound (Head-strong/ pickpocket); the non-prepositional part is another determiner (uplift, undertake). Stress pattern: ‘redcoat/ ‘greenhouse; red ‘coat/ green ‗house Chapter 4Syntax句法学 [A] The definition of syntax（本书讲Transformational Syntax乔姆斯基提出的） Syntax:A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern theformation of sentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） [C] Types of sentences Simple sentence简单句: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. Coordinate (Compound) sentence并列（复合）句: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as ―and‖, ―by‖, ―or‖… Complex sentence复杂句: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clause子句matrix clause主句 ①subordinator(主从连接词)②functions as a grammatical unit ③ may be complete [B]Some categories（范畴） Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate句法范畴（从句法角度上将词分类，在通常情况下认为句法范畴的所有词和词汇范畴的所有词对等，但一些语法派系认为lexical categories和functional categories组成所有的词再加上phrasal category组成syntactic categories） Lexical categories: (parts of speech)词汇范畴（从词类角度上将词分类） Major lexical categories 主要词汇范畴（the heads around which phrases are built） N. V. Adj. Adv. Minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴 Det (限定词). Aux (助动词）. Qual（修饰词）Deg (程度词）. Conj（连词）. 确定词的范畴三要素：Meaning, Inflection, Distribution(搭配)【具体解释P44 黄色部分】 Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP短语范畴（对应主要词汇范畴） Phrasal category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. Phrases contain 3 elements : ① head : the word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. ② Specifiers : words on the left side of the head ③ Complements : words on the right side of the head [C]Combinational rules Are small in number Yield all the possible sentences Rule out the impossible ones ① phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)（短语结构规则） S NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) NP (det.限定词) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)…“”：包括/分为 VP(qual.修饰词)V (NP) (POP) (S)…“( )”：内部的成分可以省略 AP(deg.程度词)A (PP) (S)…“…”：可以选择附加其他补语 PP(deg.)P (NP)… ②XP rule (X is the head) XP (specifier) X (complement) ③X- bar theory X-理论认为XP是过于简化的理论，因为X与Complement之间可能形成一种介于短语层面和词汇层面之间的结构，因此把这种结构称为X-（X bar）。所以X-理论对于短语的分析分两步骤走。 1. X(Specifier) X- 2. X- X (complement) ④CP– Complement Phrase Miss Herbert believes that he will win. 其中conjunction THAT引导补语（sentence complement）称为Complementizer（C） 其中由complementizer介绍的句子he will win被称为Complement clause 而that he will win一起组成Complement phrase（CP） 而CP所存在的句子结构称为Matrix Clause A/N/P后面都可加CP ⑤ modifier修饰语（这个和specifier有区别，speicifer一定是在head前面的） Modifier specifies optionally expressible properties of heads. 名词的modifier主要是adj.，且在名词前 a very careful girl. 动词的modifier主要是adv.或者prep. 且在动词后面 open with care/ read carefully 所以有人提出了expanded XP rule： XP (specifier) (mod) X (complement) (mod) [有补充语时mod一般在后面] 如：open the door with care ⑥the S rule S NP VP Infl. P NP Infl. VP 但是现在许多语言学家认为，句子也可以看成是XP结构，即存在一个specifier一个head和一个complement。而这个head是infl. (an abstract category inflection), infl确定句子的时态和搭配。 于是A boy found the book. 这句话可以看成符合S rule，NP是a boy，VP是found the book。但 也可以看成存在一个infl.即过去时，specifier是a boy，complement是found the book. [D]Transformational rules转换规则(由NP+VP/或者说XP结构转换成其他句式) ①、Auxiliary Movement（有时又称为head movement） Auxiliary serves as the head in an NP/VP sentence. To form a yes-no question structure requires a transformation, which is inversion. 这边引入一个知识：很多语言学家认为一个句子是属于一个更大的CP中的一部分。所以就可以这样解释倒装：Inversion: move Infl to C (to the left of the subject NP).移到C(complementizer)的位置。（C位置只能有一个C，因此在有从句时候，已经有了引导词便不需要inversion） Analysis of Auxiliary Movement Will the train arrive? 整句话看成CP, 由C(will) +句子S组成，其中句子S是infl. P，NP是the train，VP是arrive， infl. 是提前的will，用“e”表示，叫作“trace”。这样的movement中，auxiliary从原本infl.P的句型中head infl.的位置移到了现在CP句子中Head C的位置，称为Head Movement。 ②、Do insertion Do Insertion: insert interrogative do into an empty Infl. Position. ③ D-structure and S-structure深层结构和表层结构 Deep structure: the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable. Surface structure:linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication. Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure （P58） D-structure exists before movement takes place S-structure occurs after movement takes place XP rule Deep structure transformations Surface structure Phrase Structures Components → Transformational Components → Morpho-phonemic Components Deep structure Surface structure In D-structure：subcategorizationrestricts choices of complement 一直到写Lectures on Government and Binding才说是D-structure和S-structure，因为可能不同层次会有不同的Deep structures和surface structures. (The mechanism of the determination of a head‘s possible complements is called subcategorization.) 注意：深层结构和表层结构如果不经过Transformation则是一致的。 注意：morpheme是深层结构的，其对应的allomorphs是表层结构的 ④wh movement Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (What languages) can (you speak)? 这边can是在C位置上，同时c是head。 补充两条：被动：NP1 + AUX + V + NP2 → NP2 + AUX + BE + EN + V + BY + NP2 转化到S-structure时en要hop到V后面【affix hopping】 双宾语转化：NP1 + V + NP2 + TO + NP3 → NP1 + V + NP3 +NP2 ⑤Move α Move α is the general rule for movement, whereas the XP rule is the general phrase structure rule. Constraints on movement: 1. Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl. to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant c position. 2. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure. [E]Syntactic Relations Sequential(syntagmatic) relations组合关系 The linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence Substitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合关系) If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations. [F] Immediate Constituent Analysis （IC Analysis） IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentenceinto its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are. The principle is that we take a sentenceand cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemes Labeled IC analysis syntactic categoriescriteria in judging syntactic categories: 1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.) 2) syntactic contexts in which the linguistic forms can occur Category the determiner (Det.): definite&indefinite article, possessives, demonstratives, interrogatives the, my, your, this, that, these, which, a, an, another, other, what, any predeterminer: all; both; half; double; twice; one-fifth central determiner: definite&indefinite articles + this that each some any neither, his postdeterminers: cardinal numerals; ordinal numerals, general ordinals (next, last), quantifiers (many, a lot of….) Ps: ordinal numerals may appear before cardinal numerals: the first two days boy noun (n.) often qualifier（adj. and adv. Are qualifiers, can be complement and modifier） plays verb (v.) a Det. very degree word (Deg) small modifier( optional element, adj./ adv. /pp. etc. ) ball n. must, should… auxiliary (Aux.) and, but, or… conjunction (Con.) [G]The hierarchical structure of sentence A sentence can be analyzed into constituents. Conversely, constituents at different levels can combine to form increasingly larger units. Sentences sentences are analyzed into clauses are analyzed into phrases are analyzed into words are analyzed into morphemes are used to build clauses are used to build phrases are used to build words are used to build sentences morphemes So traditionally, sentences are assumed to be made of individual words in a linear direction Chapter 5Semantics语义学 [A] The definition of semantics Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view（对意义的研究） [B] Some views concerning the study of meaning关于意义研究的一些观点 ① the naming theory命名论(柏拉图)– words are just names/ labels for things ② the conceptualist view概念论主张意思是人脑中与符号对应的概念 thought/reference the mediation of concept思想/指称 Symbol/Form (words/phrases) 符号/形式Referent (real object)所指
The concept (thought/ reference) is actually the meaning of the word. This triangle is called semantic triangle or the triangle of significance 【Ogden& Richards】 ③ Contextualism: John Firth语境论：主张意思由语境决定 Context包括：situational context (spatiotemporal situation) 和 linguistic context（AKA co-text） Situational context包括话语的时空，说话者，听者，行为，环境中存在的事物、事件等 Linguistic context包括：搭配语境和前后文语境 ④ Behaviorism Bloomfield行为主义论 based on contextualist view 认为：meaning is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer S: stimulus r: response Jill Jack S---------r………s---------R (the small letters r, sspeech)(the capitalized letter R, Spractical events) [C] Sense and reference（意义和指称） （主要涉及Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的）【理解：是语言化的抽象意义】 Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience（指symbol/form, 即词，词组所指的在现实物质世界中的事物，是特定的脑中概念，将语言成分和非语言的经验世界联系起来）【是脑中出现的形象和概念】 Sense和reference就像是辩证思维里面的抽象与具体的关系。 Moving star I once was bitten by a dog. Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there. same reference, different senses same sense, different references [D] Major sense relations（主要的意义关系） ① synonymy同义现象 the sameness or close similarity of meaning a. dialectal synonyms方言同义词synonyms used in different regional dialects（美式/英式英语） b. stylistic synonyms文体同义词synonyms differing in style, or degree of formality (问题、正式度不同） c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词（褒贬义） collaborator - accomplice d. collocational synonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法） accuse …of; rebuke….for ; charge … with e. semantically different synonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同） amaze/ astound/ surprise ② polysemy多义现象——one word that has more than one related meaning, the original meaning being the primary meaning. ③ homonymy同音异义 Homophones: when two words are identical in sound同音异义发音一样 Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling同形异义拼写一样 Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in Sound完全同音异义词 区分complete homonyms和polysemy是看etymology，如果词源只有一个就是polysemy ④ hyponymy下义关系—— inclusiveness包含关系 The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.上坐标词 The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym下坐标词 Hyponyms of the same superordinate is called co-hyponyms. ⑤ antonymy反义词——oppositeness Gradable antonyms等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同） There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Complementary antonyms互补反义词（两个极端dead/alive，male/female） A matter of either one or the other. The denial of one implies the other. Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items（关系反义词） teacher – pupil; father – son ; buy – sell; up - down [E] Sense relations between sentences句子之间的意义关系 ① X is synonymous with Y（X与Y同义）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假 ② X is inconsistent with Y（X与Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真 ③ X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)（X蕴含Y(Y是X的一个含义)） 如果X真，Y一定真（去过法国一定去过欧洲） 如果X假，Y有可能真（没去过法国去/没去过欧洲欧洲） ④ X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)（X预设Y(Y是X的先决条件)） 如果X真，Y一定真 如果X假，Y仍然真 ⑤ X is a contradiction X自我矛盾句（总是假） ⑥ X is semantically anomalous X语义反常（预设了一个自我矛盾句） The peasant‘s throne needs polishing. Presuppose: The peasant has a throne. [F] Componential analysisa way to analyze lexical meaning（成分分析法分析词汇意义的方法） Semantic features语义特征: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic features就好像分析Phoneme的 distinctive features Show how those words are related in meaning [G] Predication analysisa way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech （述谓结构分析法分析句子意义的方法） ① the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components) ② Sentence meaning has two respects：grammatical meaning and semantic meaning包括语法意义和语义意义（a dictionary + a set of rules of projection rules） Grammatical meaning refers to the sentence‘s grammaticality语法规范性 Semantic meaning is governed by selectional restrictions, 选择规则 Selectional restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. Semantic analysis: Semantic Predication (basic unit)语义述谓结构 the abstract meaning of the sentence句子的抽象意义 一句句子的抽象意义结构叫做Predication，包括变元（arguments）和谓语（predication） Argument(s) 是变元，一般是名词成分，argument is a logical participant in the predication. Predictate是谓语 it issth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentence The predicate can be regarded as the main element. Tom smokes./ Tom is smoking. / Tom smoked. TOM (SMOKE) one-place predication（一个argument） Kids like apples. KID, APPLE (LIKE) two-place predication（两个argument） It‘s raining. (BE RAIN) no-place predication (没有argument) Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学 [A] The definition of pragmatics Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication（是研究某一语言的使用者如何使用句子而达到成功交际） Pragmatics and semantics What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.（在意义的研究中是否考虑到了语境的因素） If it is not, it is semantics. If it is, it is pragmatics. [B] Context语境/上下文 （由说It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.话人和听话人共有的知识构成） [C]Sentence meaning and utterance meaning★句子意义和话语意义 e.g. The dog is barking. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.如果把它当做一个语法单元，认为它是一个于语境之外的单元，那就当做句子 If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.如果把它当做是说话人在特定场景带着特定目的所说的话，那就当做话语 Meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized.句子的意义是抽象的，脱离语境的 Meaning of an utterance is concrete, and contextualized.话语的意义是具体的，依赖语境的 Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.话语的意义基于句子的意义之上，它是句子的抽象意义在交际的真实场景中的体现 Utterance can also take form in just words or phrases, e.g. ―good morning.‖, ―hi‖. [D] Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论） Direct speech act Indirect speech act Face-threatening Face-saving Speech Act Theory is proposed by British philosopherJohn Austin in the late 1950s. It aims to answer: what do we do when using language? Austin first Gave the distinction between constatives and performatives 叙事话语: statements that either state or describe, and thus verifiable陈述→可证实 Constatives Performatives 行事话语: sentences that don‘t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable (perform certain acts)无法证实 He then gave rise to a new model: [A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking] 说话人在说话时可能同时执行三个动作 ① locutionary act:（言内行为）the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.通过句法、词汇、音位学传递字面意义 ② illocutionary act:（言外行为）the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention It is the act preformed in saying something.通过一个话语，表达说话的意图 ③ perlocutionary act:（言后行为）the act performed by or resulting from saying something It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.话语的效果 Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary act.语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣 The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopher-linguist John Searle Five general categories: ① representatives:（阐述类）stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true 陈述描述，说出说话人认为正确的东西（Stating陈述、believing信任、swearing发誓、hypothesing假设） ② directives:（指令类）trying to get the hearer to do something 试图让听话人做某事（邀请、建议、请求、忠告、警告、威胁、命令） ③ commissives:（承诺类）committing the speaker himself to some future course of action 说话人对未来的某个行为作出承诺（许诺、保证(undertaking)、发誓） ④ expressives:（表达类）expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state 表达对存在的状态的感情或者态度（道歉、感谢、祝贺） ⑤ declaratives:（宣告类）bringing about immediate changes by saying something 通过说出某事带来的立即的变化【e.g. I hereby fire you.】 All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or force.属于同一类的所有行为具有相同的目的，但是它们在强度或力度上却存在差异 All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their syntactic form.所有表达同一种行为的话语在句法形式上有所不同 [E] Principles of conversation (Co-operative principles)会话原则或合作原则（CP原则） Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher It goes： 合作原则定义：Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Specifically, four maxims. The maxim of quantity: 数量准则（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息） The maxim of quality:质量准则（不说假话，不说缺乏足够证据的话） The maxim of relation:关系准则（有相关性） The maxim of manner:方式准则（避免表达艰涩，避免歧义，简洁，避免冗繁，有条理） Significance重要性: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said. 它解释了说话人是如何表达字面意义之外的信息 When the maxims are flouted (not just violated), conversational implicatures (言外之意) occur. 名词解释： Linguistic Language Phonology Phone Phoneme Allophone Morpheme Derivational morpheme Inflectional morpheme Syntax Semantics Sense and Reference